Dangerous animals

Australian magpies (Cracticus tibicen) are a common bird found throughout Australia. In September and October, their mating season, they become extremely vigilant in defending their nests and young and will divebomb and peck anything they perceive as a threat – usually humans. Due to the sheer number of these birds, simply walking down a street can result in multiple attacks. As such, this time of year has colloquially become known among Australians as "swooping season".

There is no way to stop the magpies, but various techniques have been developed to prevent injury. Zipties tied to a bicycle helmet have proven effective, as have other hard plastic head coverings.

Gulls, informally referred to as "seagulls", were once primarily sea-going birds that nested on cliffs and in other wild places. Some time in the 1940s, however, some types of gull began to move increasingly into human settlements and nest there instead. It is not entirely known why this shift occurred, but as some gulls are opportunistic and adaptable feeders it is possible that they found easy food in newly-made landfill sites and on the street. Seeing a squad of gulls quickly hoover up a discarded doner kebab is something of a spectacle.

Two of the species that moved in next door to people, herring gulls and lesser black-backed gulls, are vigilant in defending their nests and young. Even if they've seen and lived next to humans every day of their lives, once their chicks hatch, everything and anything can be seen as a potential threat. These gulls are large and have sharp beaks and claws, and injuries occur often.

There is no way to prevent the gulls from attacking, and harming the gulls or their nests and young is illegal (in certain cases licences can be granted). Gulls can be discouraged from areas by removing readily-available food sources such as easily torn bin bags and stopping people from directly feeding the birds. Nesting can be discouraged by fitting specially-made spikes. All discouraging methods should be started early in the year before the birds start to breed.

Do not contribute to the problem by letting them get food from you. In some places tourists are a major source of food – offered, abandoned or taken from you.

Birds of prey — such as owls, falcons, kites, vultures, condors, hawks, and eagles — are, by nature, solitary animals and they generally avoid interacting with humans and other birds of prey unless they've been provoked or are curious about something. Birds of prey have strong, sharp talons and beaks and they are capable of inflicting serious injuries.

Small pets — such as cats and dogs — are especially vulnerable to attacks from birds of prey; consider being around your pet when you go out for a walk, or keeping them indoors.

The best way to admire and appreciate birds of prey is to observe them from a safe distance. If it seems that a bird of prey is about to attack you for whatever reason, make loud noises (yelling, screaming, clapping) or flash lights at them to scare them off.

Birds of prey are protected by all kinds of laws in many countries; it is illegal to disturb them, their habitats or their nests.

Of the hundreds of known species of sharks, only a handful are regarded as posing a significant risk to human safety, and attacks on humans are rare. The rarity of shark attacks, however, does not mean they cannot be fatal. Nor does the seemingly random nature of shark attacks help to allay fears about being bitten. Sharks usually attack because they think you are a seal, a turtle, a fish, or various other types of prey. Sometimes they test bite if they are curious, but sharks do not intentionally bite, attack, or kill humans.

Here are a few common sense tips to reduce the risk of encountering sharks:

• Swim close to shore.
• Swim, dive or surf with other people.
• Avoid areas where there are large schools of fish, dolphins, seals or sea lions and close to bird rookeries.
• Avoid areas where animal, human or fish waste enters the water.
• Avoid deep channels or areas with deep drop-offs nearby.
• Do not remain in the water with bleeding wounds.
• Look carefully before jumping into the water from a boat or jetty.
• If spearing fish, don't carry dead or bleeding fish attached to you and remove all speared fish from the water as quickly as possible.
• If schooling fish or other wildlife start to behave erratically or congregate in large numbers, leave the water.
• If you see a shark, leave the water as quickly and calmly as possible – avoid excessive splashing or noise.​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​​

Stonefish (genus Synanceia) are a venomous fish; their sting causes excruciating pain and can be fatal. They get their name from their mottled color and tendency to lie on the bottom looking much like a stone; they are quite difficult to see and avoid. In some areas it is common to wear running shoes while swimming to protect against being stung.

An antivenin is available and anyone who is stung should try to get it as quickly as possible. First-aid treatments include hot water, which breaks down the venom, and vinegar, which reduces the pain.

Stonefish are found in warm waters across the Indian Ocean and into the Pacific, at least from the Red Sea to the Philippines. They are a serious hazard in parts of Queensland.

The Pterois genus, most commonly known as lionfish are a venomous fish characterized by conspicuous warning coloration with red, white, creamy, or black bands and venomous spiky fin rays. Stings are extremely painful and can lead to nausea, convulsions, temporary paralysis, heart failure, and, in extreme cases, death. Young children and people with weak immune systems are particularly susceptible.

Treatment is available and should be sought as a soon as possible.

Though native to the Indo-Pacific they have spread throughout the world, and are common in the Caribbean. In Florida and The Bahamas they are treated as invasive species, and any sighting should be reported to wildlife managers.

Most ape species live in troops and are highly territorial. They will not generally bother humans who keep their distance, but if you provoke them then the whole troop (or at least all the young males) may attack.

Baboons protect their territory and troop quite fiercely, both by direct attacks and by hurling rocks. They sometimes kill a leopard or hyena that gets too close and can usually drive lions off.

Chimpanzees have been known to attack humans in the wild, and can cause serious injury or death.

Gorillas have in rare cases attacked humans, but they generally don't attack unless provoked, and will show warning signs before attacking. Even if you reckon you could easily punch out Chuck Norris, you should definitely back off if a gorilla acts aggressive. Adults are all at least 100 kg (220 lb), some over 250 kg (550 lb), and most are far stronger than any human.

Orangutans are less dangerous than gorillas because they are smaller (average 75 kg (165 lb) for adults), they generally live in smaller troops, and they mostly live in the trees so humans are less likely to get too close.

Bear danger is prevalent in most areas populated with bears.

Before backpackers are allowed to enter an area with bears, they may be required to watch an instructional video on how to avoid encountering or agitating bears. If not, you can still ask for advice. Best strategies for dealing with bear danger differ from place to place.

In any area, making noise to avoid startling a bear and to prevent yourself from getting between a mother and her cubs will increase your safety. Many hikers wear special bear bells at their ankles to warn the bears of human presence. It is always safer to hike in noisy groups rather than solo. In some areas, food and scratches should be handled such that the bears cannot get at them, or at least do not come to you for them.

Polar bears have no reluctance in stalking and eating people; they survive mainly by hunting, and humans are roughly the same size and shape as seals, which are among their usual prey. If you visit areas within the polar bear habitat, such as Churchill (in the Canadian Arctic) or Svalbard, you must take special precautions to avoid becoming prey. The best way to avoid being attacked is not to enter any area where polar bears live or to remain inside a hard-shell vehicle or building. Consult local authorities before leaving settlements. Having an armed guide, trained to deal with the polar bears, is often required in such areas. The polar bear is very fast; you cannot run away from them.

Other types of bears, such as black bears and grizzly bears, are versatile foragers rather than pure hunters; they are less likely to want to eat you and much more likely to want to eat your food. But regardless, they are big, extremely strong animals that can easily maul an adult human being to death, so be careful when you visit areas where they live. The advice below is about them.

The European brown bear generally avoids humans, but can attack for self defence. Hunters are attacked now and then, by a wounded bear or one harassed by the hunter's dog. At rare occasions somebody succeeds in getting between a mother and her cubs and might be unlucky enough to get killed.

The advice below applies to omnivores such as brown and black bears, for the completely carnivorous polar bear, see above.

In North America, know the difference between grizzly bears and black bears. Grizzlies have a large hump on their back near the head and often have fur that looks frosted. Black bears can be black, brown or reddish in color.

Bears of all kinds are curious. They will inspect just about anything (ships, cars, homes) to see if anything is playable or edible.

If you see a bear, back off slowly or keep your distance and make noise to avoid startling the bear. The best noise in this situation may be talking with a calm voice (which tells the bear you are human and that you have no aggressive intentions).

Never turn your back on the bear or run; running away can activate the hunting instincts of the bear and lead to it perceiving you as prey. Climbing a tree is also not the best idea, as most bears occasionally climb trees, and some are good climbers.

If a bear becomes confrontational, either back off slowly or stand your ground, raise your arms above your head so as to appear larger and yell at the bear. Black bears can often be scared off in this way. Grizzlies are much more aggressive and trying to scare them off is a bad idea. Advice differs on the best approach for black or brown bears. Follow local advice and rules, if possible.

If a bear does charge, you should muster your courage, as most bear charges are bluff. Either stand your ground or curl into a fetal position so as to shield vital organs and appear non-threatening. If the bear does attack, you can still curl into the fetal position. If this is not enough, you can either hope the bear will lose its interest without doing too much damage or fight the bear in any way you can.

Bear spray – a special form of pepper spray – is mandatory in certain parks and wildlife areas and perhaps available regardless. It is designed to make a large short blast that only lasts a few seconds so proximity to the bear is key; make sure you have understood when and how to use it. Most bear sprays come with a safety, so make sure you understand how the safety works and wear your bear spray where it can easily be accessed in an emergency.

Bears are opportunistic omnivores with an excellent sense of smell, and are attracted to human and pet foods as well as refuse. Improper storage of these items can allow bears to eat human food and become dependent on it, increasing the probability of encounters with humans. Most brown and black bear encounters in populated areas involve so-called "trouble bears", usually young males who have just left their mothers and do not yet have a territory of their own. If they wander close to human settlements, the smells of cooking and garbage can cause them to ignore their usual instinct to avoid humans. Many parks and people in areas with bears utilize bear-resistant garbage cans and dumpsters for this reason, and many areas have laws prohibiting the feeding of bears, even unintentionally.

Feeding a bear your food may seem like a kind gesture, but it is actually very harmful. It makes the bear associate people with food, and that can lead to serious problems.

Campers can access bear-proof containers at many parks to store their food and trash and they may be required in some areas. The containers are then buried or strung on a rope between two tall trees, out of bears' reach. They are also instructed to put their containers, campfire, and tenting 100 meters away from each other, forming a triangle.

In bear country, do not leave trash, food or any scented items such as chapstick, toothpaste, deodorant or air freshener in your vehicle. Bears can do severe damage to your car, using their claws to pry open car doors or trunks. Bear canisters cannot be opened by bears, but some have learned to roll them off cliffs to break them open. Keep your canisters away from streams and cliffs. In some areas, bears have learned how to take down food suspended on ropes.

In some areas, it is recommended that food scraps are disposed of in rivers – not good where eutrophication is a problem, but it avoids bears finding them where they can scent the human presence.

All the feline species are carnivores with the instincts for hunting, and all may kill more-or-less anything that is not too large for them. Even a cute and gentle domestic cat will wreak havoc among the local birds and rodents if it can catch them. Wild species have had more practice so their hunting skills are better, some can kill adult humans, and many could kill children or pets.

Big cats such as tigers, lions, leopards, jaguars, panthers and pumas (aka cougars or mountain lions) do occasionally kill people.

Smaller cats such as bobcat or lynx are extremely unlikely to see adult humans as prey, but are quite capable of doing serious injury in the highly improbable event that you manage to corner one.

Don’t hike alone. Make noise to avoid surprising a mountain lion and keep children close to you at all times. If you do encounter a mountain lion, do not run. Talk calmly and loudly, avert your gaze, stand tall, and back away. Unlike with bears, if attack seems imminent, act aggressively. Try to make yourself look bigger (for instance, raise your jacket above your head). Do not crouch and do not turn away. Mountain lions may be scared away by being struck with rocks or sticks, or by being kicked or hit. They are primarily nocturnal, but they have attacked in broad daylight. They rarely prey on humans, but such behavior occasionally does occur. Children and small adults are particularly vulnerable.

Main article: Tigers

Tigers are the largest feline species, and native to much of Asia, ranging from the Siberian tiger of the frigid Russian Far East to the Malayan tiger of the hot and humid tropics in Southeast Asia.

Tigers are apex predators; their sharp claws, sharp teeth, powerful jaws, explosive temper, territorial nature, and their incredible stamina and strength make them extremely fearsome and dangerous. This being said, tigers rarely stalk and hunt humans.

Do not urinate in their territory as this can be seen as challenging their ownership of their territory.

As with other predators, if you come face to face with a tiger, remain calm and back away slowly from them. Trying to run away or showing that you're afraid of them will invite them to attack you. Making noises that a tiger isn't accustomed to may make it feel less secure and it would most likely leave you alone. However, do not hit, yell at, throw objects at, or antagonise a tiger in any way; tigers can respond to aggression with aggression

Even if the tiger you see appears to be feeble, weak or in need of help, do not approach it: there is little you can do to help it and it may well kill you as a precaution or for food; it probably still is much stronger than you. Instead report it to relevant authorities. And if you see a tiger cub – evacuate the area immediately.

Lions are generally associated with Africa, where they can be found in the largest numbers, though there is also a small critically endangered population that is native to India.

Lions can be extremely dangerous. Lionesses are more active hunters than male lions.

Lions rarely attack humans. In most cases, they are generally curious about humans. They will only attack humans if they can't find anything else to eat.

If, by a stroke of ill-luck, you come face to face with a lion that wants to eat you, remain calm. It can be intimidating to be in close contact with a lion, but you should always appear confident and big in front of them. Back away slowly and make some loud noise, as it can frighten them.

If the lion does not go away, hit the lion in the eyes or the face. This tactic may seem useless, but people have managed to fend off lions by fighting back like this.

If you end up getting badly injured fending off a lion, get medical attention immediately and consider getting psychological help; it can be a highly frightening experience for many.

Main article: Aggressive dogs

It is not just that dogs can be dangerous – in some countries where inadequate veterinary services are available, dogs can be rabid – a bite from them and you are in serious trouble.

Even friendly non-rabid dogs pose some danger. An otherwise gentle dog may snap if someone approaches when it is feeding, and a large dog may cause injury with overly enthusiastic friendly gestures such as jumping up on someone.

See also: Elephants

Elephants may be the "gentle giants" of the animal kingdom, but they have a long, painful history of conflict with humans. Their large, bulky shapes and sizes make them incredibly intimidating and they are dangerous if you happen to provoke or anger them. If you are close, they can hurt you badly by accident.

Whenever you encounter a wild elephant, pay close attention to their ears, legs, and their trunk.

• If an elephant's ears appear to be relaxed or "fanned out", the elephant is trying to determine whether you're a threat or not. It may do a "mock charge", i.e. a bluff attack just to scare you off.
• If an elephant is swinging their legs back and fro, it is most likely afraid of you and won't make a real charge. Still, back off.
• If an elephant's trunk is curled inwards and it has its ears close to its head, it is probably about to charge at you for real. Retreat immediately and take cover.

In the unlikely event you are chased by a wild elephant, you can throw an object to distract the elephant or you can run in a zig-zag pattern to outrun the elephant. If you take cover somewhere, be still and quiet; elephants have extremely good hearing.

During a mock charge, do not appear fearful. Stand your ground and demonstrate you are not a threat. Elephants will be more inclined to leave you alone after that.

Foxes are too small to be of any significant threat to humans, though they often scavenge through human trash, and may attack small livestock like chickens, as well as some smaller pets. Foxes that attack humans unprovoked are usually infected with rabies, so if you are attacked by one, it is imperative that you seek medical attention as soon as possible.

Although Hippopotamuses are herbivores, their large size, incredible stamina, and powerful jaws make them extremely dangerous.

Hippos are so territorial, that they will lash out at, well, anything or anyone (including other hippos) that they think is 'taking away' their space from them. Even crocodiles, for the most part, are scared of attacking and approaching hippos.

If you encounter hippos in the water or on land, alert them to your presence and maintain an acceptable distance from them. Do not attempt to slip by them unnoticed or else you will make yourself the target of an irritated hippo.

If a hippo in the water opens its mouth wide (like a yawn), retreat. Hippos do this to scare off threats or undesirable elements.

See horse riding for a general discussion of the joys and hazards of horses and ponies. Falling off them is the most common danger, but there are other risks. A bite can be quite serious and a kick can be fatal.

The risk of aggression from a well-trained horse or pony is generally small, but nearly all horses are easily spooked and likely to react dangerously if startled or provoked. Ask the owner before going close. Talk calmly to the animal, approach from the side, and show the horse or pony what you are going to do; avoid doing anything surprising. Also avoid going close behind a horse or pony as this is the direction in which they can kick most easily and is out of their field of view so movement there may startle them.

Having a horse accidentally step on your foot can also cause serious injury. The larger breeds can do more damage, but even a pony is heavy enough to hurt you quite badly.

Wild horses and ponies vary in how they perceive people. Some herds that are managed by people or closely associate with them may be more tolerant, but all wild animals should be seen as unpredictable no matter what. Avoid getting too close and definitely avoid feeding them – in some places this is illegal. You should also never get close to a stallion with mares or to mares with foals as they will be more defensive and therefore more likely to charge at you.

If you do find yourself close to a wild horse or pony then they will usually give warnings via body language before they charge. If a horse's ears go back then the animal is not happy and you should back off. If the ears are pinned back and there is also teeth-baring and hoof-stomping or head-tossing then you've really caused upset and should get out of there pronto! Upset horses and ponies may also turn so that they are facing away from you – that could mean they're getting ready to deliver a powerful kick with their hind legs, so keep clear!

If you enter an area where kangaroos live, give them as much space as possible. If you see one, stay away from it and watch how it behaves. If it moves toward you or shows signs of being aggressive, move away (even if it is only looking for food or human contact, a kangaroo may still become aggressive). Don't act aggressively towards the kangaroo, as this will simply reinforce the idea that you are a threat.

If you are approached by an aggressive kangaroo you should keep it at a safe distance so that it can't kick or scratch. For example, hold up a stick or branch, or stay behind a fence or a tree. Move away from the animal as quickly as you can. Turning your back on it and running could be dangerous as a large male can easily outrun you and still kick at the same time. Turn side-on and protect the front of your body with your arms and keep your head as far away from the kangaroo as possible to minimize the risk of being scratched on the face.

If it is a large male that has been displaying dominance behavior, it may see you as a threat. Protect yourself and let the kangaroo know you are not a threat by giving a short, deep cough, avoiding eye contact and crouching down as you move away.

Females and smaller male kangaroos are less likely to be aggressive but may approach if they are used to being fed or have had a lot of human contact. Even though females are much smaller than males, they can scratch and kick and could pose a safety risk – particularly to small children.

Avoid the tails of kangaroos as well – while other animals have limp tails that can do no harm, kangaroos can swing their tails so powerfully that they can easily break a limb.

As a last resort, if you can't escape an attacking kangaroo, roll up into a ball on the ground with your arm covering your neck and call for help. Try to roll or crawl away to a safe place.

American elk, moose, deer, bison, goats and cattle can attack people and as big as they are, bison can sprint three times faster than humans can run. They are unpredictable and dangerous and it is best to keep a fair distance between yourself and the animals – if it changes its behavior due to your presence, you are too close. Nevertheless, in North America and Europe a much greater danger from large ungulates is car crashes.

In Africa, buffalo rank with hippos as the most dangerous animals, well ahead of animals perceived to be more deadly in the West such as lions and rhinos.

Boars are widespread in Europe and most of Asia. They are mainly a risk for animal collisions and food scavenging. In rare cases they are aggressive, especially if they are provoked by dogs.

In some locations, feral pigs become a nuisance similar to natural boars.

Wild boar attacks on humans are not common but do occur occasionally. Usually, boars, like most wild animals, will avoid interactions with humans. Due to the clearing of natural boar habitats, the number of interactions, including aggressive ones, between humans and boars has increased. Boars eat everything, so they might look for food in farmlands, campsites, landfills, and gardens.

When dealing aggressively with a human, boars will charge at them. These are sometimes bluff charges, but in other cases violent contact will be made. While the impact of the large, hard-skulled head may cause considerable damage itself, most damage is inflicted by the boar's tusk. When ramming into a person, the boar will slash the tusks upwards, creating sizable open lacerations on the skin. Due to the height of the boar relative to a human, most wounds are inflicted to the upper legs. Some attacks are provoked, such as when hunters wound a boar, which then counterattacks. Male boars become most aggressive during the mating season and may charge at humans at such times. Occasionally, female boars will attack if they feel their piglets are threatened, especially if a human physically comes between them and their young. Although a majority of boar attack victims recover with medical treatment, fatalities do occasionally occur.

More than a billion domestic cattle graze the Earth, outnumbering all other animals of similar size. They are dangerous in herds.

The male of the species is particularly aggressive. Even under controlled conditions, an event like the Running of the Bulls in Pamplona can and has resulted in injuries or fatalities.

Cattle, including bulls, roam freely throughout much of India. While most of them are harmless and are used to being surrounded by humans, the bulls can charge at you at any moment for no apparent reason.

The term "elk" has different meanings in different varieties of English. Outside North America, it refers to the animal we describe as a moose below. In North America, it means the quite different animal shown in the photo. An alternate term is wapiti, borrowed from a Native American language.

In September and October herds of North American elk gather for their mating season, or “rut.” During the rut, the male “bull” elk are irritable, aggressive and extremely dangerous to onlookers who get too close.

The elk calving season takes place in April and May of each year. During this time, female elk, or cows, become irritable and highly protective of their young calves. Though they may look harmless, cows are extremely dangerous during calving season.

Elk are wild animals which must be observed from a safe distance to avoid injury or death. If an animal is carefully watching you and appears “jumpy” when you move, you are too close.

Moose aren't inherently aggressive, but will defend themselves if they perceive a threat. When people don't see moose as potentially dangerous, they may approach too closely and put themselves at risk. More people each year are injured by moose than by bears.

Enjoy viewing them from a distance. Cow moose are extremely defensive of their young so use extra caution around cows with calves and never get between a cow and a calf.

In the summer months, moose blend in well to their environment and can be surprisingly hard to see for such large animals. They are likely to stand their ground even when they hear people approaching, so pay close attention to your surroundings, especially in prime moose habitat such as willow thickets or around streams or ponds.

If you do find yourself close to a moose

• If it hasn't detected you yet, keep it that way.
• If it knows you're there, talk to it softly and move away slowly.
• Don't be aggressive – you want to convince the moose that you aren't a threat.
• If you think the moose is going to charge you, take cover or run away. Unlike with bears, it is okay to run from a moose.
• Moose cannot climb trees, so getting up one is reasonably safe. Try to choose a fairly large tree and get high enough that the antlers cannot reach you.

Watch for signs that the moose is upset. If its ears are laid back and hackles are up it is likely to charge. Most of the time, when a moose charges it is a 'bluff', or warning for you to get back – a warning you should take very seriously! Once a moose bluff charges it is already agitated. If possible, get behind something solid (like a tree or a car).

They usually won't chase you and if they do, it's unlikely that they'll chase you very far. If a moose knocks you down, curl up in a ball and protect your head with your arms and keep still. Fighting back will only convince the moose that you may still be a threat. Only move once the moose has backed off to a safe distance or it may renew its attack.

The musk ox lives in the Arctic and in some nature reserves in Norway and Sweden. While they avoid humans, if threatened the herd will not run away and instead forms a defensive formation, and may attack if humans come closer, usually a single bull charging at 60 km/h (40 mph). Keep a safe distance of at least 200 meters.

Wolves rarely hunt humans, but they may come after livestock, food supplies or trash. Animals gradually lose their natural avoidance to people when they are protected from harm by people, or where humans act passively towards them. This is called habituation. Habituated wolves become comfortable around people and may venture quite close to people. It is very important to understand that these habituated wolves are actually the ones most likely to suddenly act aggressively.

Wolves also quickly learn that food is often found in human garbage. When wolves seek out human foods they have become food-conditioned. If a wolf is fed by people it begins to expect handouts. If that wolf approaches a person but gets no food, it can become suddenly aggressive. This type of aggression is probably responsible for many of the bites that wolves have inflicted on people.

Wolves have generally not learnt to hunt people for food, and thus any pack and especially any lone wolf will hesitate to do an attack against a person who does not show weakness. If a wolf comes near, do neither run nor try to get friendly, but back off without turning your back. If the wolf follows, striking with a walking stick in its direction or similar aggressive behaviour can help keep your psychological advantage, but is usually unnecessary. In most countries with wolves, aggressive behaviour against people is very rare indeed.

Rabid wolves, on the other hand, often attack without being provoked. They do not attack to kill but the bite requires urgent treatment, as rabies is lethal.

Wolves regard dogs as rivals, and show them no mercy. Many hunting dogs have been killed by wolves and some large dogs will attack and kill wolves. Various wolfhound or guard dog types are bred for this, and some dogs will even make suicidal attacks against a pack. Most dogs instead try to show that they are friendly, and may make themselves an easy prey. See also Travelling with pets.

Crocodiles are dangerous animals and they can eat just about anything they encounter. They are mostly found in equatorial zones, particularly in Australia, Southeast Asia and parts of Africa.

Crocodiles are more dangerous in the water than on land because they seize their prey and drown them before eating them. Always exercise extreme caution if you are near a river or a water body populated with crocodiles. Forget any tips for fighting off a crocodile, just don't get into reach.

While alligators are less aggressive toward humans in general than crocodiles, there have been many cases of predation or injury of human beings by alligators. In areas where alligators are common, avoid swimming in, or going dangerously close to, bodies of water where they may lurk.

In Mexico, Central America, and South America, a cousin of the alligator is frequently seen in jungle wetlands. The caiman is usually smaller than an alligator or crocodile, but tends to be faster and more agile.

Main article: Venomous snakes

Few snakes are likely to consider adult humans as prey and a lot of snakes prefer to avoid people. Some venomous species, however, can be deadly.

General advice is to never try to pick up, harm, or kill a snake. If you see a snake, just move on or call in a professional snake catcher to move the animal. A lot of people are bitten when attempting to handle snakes. Most tourists who suffer snakebites do so accidentally by stepping on a camouflaged snake. Wearing appropriate footwear and clothing can reduce the risk of accidental snakebite.

It's usually impossible to discern whether a snakebite is venomous by the shape of the bite or the snake, unless you can recognize the specific species. Treat any snakebite as fatally dangerous unless you're certain it's not.

Generally, treatments presented outside the medical field do not work. Instead, you should get proper medical aid and try to avoid deteriorating until the medical aid arrives. To do so, the victim of the snake bite needs to rest immediately, completely, and comfortably so the circulation of the venom is slower. The victim needs to be calm, also for this reason. The part of the body damaged by the snake needs to be lower than the rest of the body. If possible, set it using strong branches or the like, so it moves as little as possible. There also exist venom suction pumps which are considered more effective than sucking with the mouth, but studies show that their effects are apparently also negligible. If you have one, use it if you have time, but don't let it delay the victim's evacuation.

Taking a photo of the snake could be very helpful for the doctors. No need to actually catch or kill the snake; it's not like they can or need to produce antivenom on the spot. They only need to be able to recognize the species to know what anti-venom and other treatments to apply.

Most frogs and toads are innocuous. Kids pick them up when they find them in ponds or trees. Some species of toads and frogs are quite dangerous though. Some of the brilliantly colorful poison dart frogs (mainly the Phyllobates species) in Central and South American rainforests secrete poison through their skin. Simply picking up one of these frogs and stroking its skin can kill a man.

Most lizards are docile and people frequently pick them up and keep them as pets. Some are quite dangerous. In the dry deserts of southwestern United States and northern Mexico is a large, stout lizard called the gila monster who will hang on when it bites so as to inject maximum venom. Along the Pacific coast of Mexico live beaded lizards, who do the same thing. Although many people keep iguanas as pets, and they're usually mellow guys hanging out in the warm sun, they have sharp teeth and have been known to bite. The most dangerous lizards are found in southeast Asia where several people have reportedly been attacked and killed by komodo dragons.

Newts are an amphibian that can be mistaken for lizards. Many newts produce highly-toxic compounds that they secrete through their skin. Rough-skinned newts, found in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States, produce tetrodotoxin in lethal quantities. This is a potent neurotoxin, which is also produced by pufferfish.