Taxila

Taxila is on several trade routes which have been important since ancient times. It was one of the main centres from which Buddhism spread along the Silk Road, most notably to China and Mongolia. The main trade routes were:

• going southeast, a route that even in ancient times connected Gandhara to the Ganges Valley. The Maurya Empire, 322 – 185 BCE, improved this into a good highway from Taxila to their capital in what is now Patna.
• going west, the road to Peshawar (the other main city of Gandhara), and up the Khyber Pass to Kabul. Beyond Kabul, roads lead on west to Persia (now Iran) or north to Bactria and Central Asia.

Later those roads became parts of the Grand Trunk Road running all the way from Chittagong, now in Bangladesh to Kabul, Afghanistan. This was built by various Indian kings before the British arrived, was important through the British Raj, and is still a major road in four countries. Today Taxila is just off the Grand Trunk Road.

• going north, multiple routes over different passes:

via Kabul to Bactria as mentioned above

via what is now the Karakoram Highway toward Kashgar, in the region shown as Sakae on the upper right of the map

via Srinagar and Ladakh to Khotan, east of Kashgar

• going south, various routes to Sindh and Rajasthan

All these routes remained in use into modern times though the separation of India and Pakistan reduced trade on some routes, the pass north of Ladakh is not much used today, and recent troubles in Afghanistan have greatly reduced trade there. Today the region around Taxila remains well-connected to anywhere in Pakistan by road and rail, and the Karakoram Highway is an important trade route.

British army engineer Alexander Cunningham excavated the area and discovered the ruins of an ancient city in the mid-19th century, and the renowned archaeologist John Marshall — who was at time the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India and was also behind the discovery of once-thriving ancient city of Mohenjo-daro — carried out excavations at Taxila over a period of twenty years between 1913 and 1934.

There is archeological evidence of early settlement in the area first by prehistoric neolithic people and later by the Indus Valley Civilization around 2000 BCE, but not of a city in those time periods. Taxila is mentioned as a city in the Hindu epic poem the Mahabarata, which describes events around 1000 BCE.

The main excavated ruins are all from Taxila's glory days, after 600 BCE. They are divided into three major cities, each of which belongs to a distinct time period:

1. The oldest area is Bhir Mound. Bhir and the nearby Hathial mound date from the 6th century BCE when the Persian king Darius took Taxila, and belong to the Achaemenid Empire or First Persian Empire.
2. The second city is Sirkap, which was built by the Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius in the 2nd century BCE.
3. The third and last city is Sirsukh, which was founded by the Kushan king Kanishka after 80 CE.

Later Taxila gradually waned in importance, and the town was eventually destroyed by nomadic Hun tribesmen in the 5th century CE.

For a more detailed history, see the Guide to Historic Taxila online at the Pakistani government's national heritage site. The story given there is considerably more complex than just the three main excavated areas mentioned above.

There are some three dozen large and small sites which include stupas, monasteries, and other ancient buildings spread out over a wide area. The UNESCO World Heritage listing for Taxila includes 18 of these and assigns a unique identification number to each. The 18 are:

• 🌍 Khanpur Cave (near Mohra Murado Cave). is a Mesolithic period archaeological site which reveals that Taxila was inhabited in prehistoric times. The 10ft deep and 25ft wide Mesolithic period cave high up on the hill and has produced microlithic made tools as well Buddhist stupas and monastries. 
• 🌍 Sarai Kala (near railway station). The mound of Sarai Kala has evidence of the earliest prehistoric settlement, in the Mesolithic period, and also later Bronze age and Iron age settlements. It preserves Neolithic remains going back to 3360 BC and Early Harappan (Indus Valley Civilisation) remains of 2900-2600 BC. 
• 🌍 Bhir Mound (near the museum). is an archaeological site which was once a major city founded around the 6th century BC, the oldest ruins of a city at Taxila. The oldest part of ruins, from the 5th and 6th centuries BCE, are believed to be the remains of Persian/Achaemenid Taxila. Later ruins are from the 4th century BCE, after the invasion of Alexander the Great, and the 3rd, during the time of the Maurya kings of India. There are also some ruins from after the Mauryan period. 
• 🌍 Sirkap. This was once a major thriving walled city. It was founded by the Greek king Demetrius I in the 2nd century BCE and was later rebuilt by king Menander I of the Indo-Greek kingdom. Sirkap houses a round stupa which is one of the oldest stupas in the Indian subcontinent, a large sanctuary building known as Apsidal Temple, a magnificent Double-Headed Eagle Stupa as well many houses. (updated Feb 2015)
• 🌍 Sirsukh. The fortified ruined city of Sirsukh was once a major city, and was among the last ancient cities of Taxila. The city was founded by the Kushan king Kanishka the Great after 80 CE. 
• 🌍 Dharma rajika stupa and monastery (2.5 kilometers from the museum on PMO Colony Rd). The Buddhist stupa at Dharma rajika is also known as "Chir Tope", and is the largest stupa at Taxila. It is believed that this 15-meter-high circular structure was built during the 3rd century BCE by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka The Great. The area also has Gandhara-style monasteries and some smaller stupas. It is one of the well-preserved and important sites. 
• 🌍 Khader Mohra (Akhuri) (to the south-east of Dharmarajika). Limited excavation shows marks of a monastery foundation. 
• 🌍 Kalawan group of buildings. Consists of some stupas and monastic cells as well as a few caves. 
• 🌍 Giri complex of monuments. Consists of Buddhist monasteries, a mosque, a tomb and a Middle Ages period fort. 
• 🌍 Kunala stupa and monastery (above Sirkap). contains the remains of an extensive monastery and a stupa nearby. 
• 🌍 Jandial complex. Contain the ruins of a Greek temple and is believed to have been location of a Zoroastrian (Parsi) tower. (updated Feb 2015)
• 🌍 Lalchak and Badalpur Buddhist stupa (north-eastern corner of Sirsukh). contains the ruins of some mounds that reveals some monasteries, stupas and chapels. 
• 🌍 Mohra Moradu stupa and monastery (Jinnan Wali Dheri?). a well-preserved complex where there are the remains of two Buddhist stupas (one main and other one votive) and an ancient Buddhist monastery. The city is believed to be from the Kushan age as it was built in the 2nd century CE and later renovated in the 5th century. The double story monastery building is an impressive structure which consists of 27 rooms for students, a pool, kitchen and assembly hall. 
• 🌍 Pippala stupa and monastery. consists of the ruins of a stupa and a monastery. 
• 🌍 Jaulian stupa and monastery (7 kilometers from the museum on Taxila Rd). Fifth century CE ruins on a hill with a Buddhist stupa, a Buddhist monastery and what is believed to have been a university. The courtyard and foundation of ancient buildings are still well-preserved which make it an important site. (updated Feb 2015)
• 🌍 Lalchak mounds. Consists the remains of a stupa, and monastery. 
• 🌍 Buddhist remains around Bhallar stupa. location of where there was an impressive Buddhist stupa. 
• 🌍 Giri Mosque and tombs. contains the remains of few tombs, a three-dome mosque and a madrasa (Islamic school) from the 10th-14th century CE. It was known to Persians as the Madrasa of Margalla. 

While Taxila is the main source for Gandharan artifacts and the Taxila Museum has a fine collection, it is not the only such collection. In Pakistan, both the National Museum in Karachi and the Lahore Museum have much Gandharan art. In Kipling's novel Kim the Tibetan Lama comes to Lahore mainly to see the Gandharan sculpture in the museum there. Outside Pakistan, India's National Museum in Delhi and the British Museum in London both have some Gandharan art.

The huge Buddhist statues at Bamiyan were another famous example of Gandharan art. However, Taliban considered them idolatrous and un-Islamic, so they destroyed them almost completely.

• 🌍 Taxila Museum (ٹیکسلا میوزیم). This century old museum is dedicated solely to the remains of the Gandhara civilisation. It has an extensive and impressive collection of Gandhara art such as stone Buddhist sculpture, and has thousands of objects on display. Most of the artifacts were excavated around Taxila and date from the period 600 BCE to 500 CE. The museum gives a good overview of Taxila and is certainly worth a visit. Entrance is Rs 200 rupees for foreigners, Rs 20 for locals. (updated Jun 2020)

• 🌍 Nicholson's Obelisk (نکلسن کی ابلیسک) (In the Margalla Pass, above the Grand Trunk Road between Rawalpindi and Taxila). Captain John Nicholson, from Ireland, was one of the most colourful characters of the East India Company's army in Victoria's time, a decorated officer and an effective administrator, but also a bit of a madman. He hunted tigers armed with only a sword and personally went after one bandit chief, cut off his head, and kept it on his desk for months as a warning to others. At one point he learned of a plot to poison the British officers, hanged all the cooks, then calmly proceeded to dinner.
  During the Mutiny of 1857 Nicholson planned a bold attack on Delhi, and bullied the aged and conservative General in charge into approving it. He was shot while leading the attack and died a few days later, aged 35, but the British took Delhi and ended the mutiny.
  The British considered him a major hero, and some of the natives (much to his dismay) treated him as a rather odd sort of saint, creating a cult of "Nikal Seyn" which lasted well into the 20th century. His tomb is in Delhi and there are statues in both Delhi and Ireland, but this monument is on the frontier where he spent most of his career. (updated Jun 2020)