Islam

See also: Pre-Islamic Arabia

The man regarded in orthodox Islam as Allah's last Messenger, and by all as the first person to preach Islam using the word Islam as such, is the Prophet Muhammad (also transliterated as Mohammed).

Muhammad was born in Mecca c. 570 CE. According to Islamic belief, the Angel Gabriel recited the words of the Koran to him in a cave where he was praying. Many of the Jews and Christians who heard Muhammad's preaching dismissed it as distortions of Bible stories, but the Muslim position is that it was the Bible that had gotten distorted, and the Archangel Gabriel had delivered the accurate word of Allah directly to the Prophet in order to correct the distortions.

More immediately relevant at the time, however, was the fact that most Meccans remained polytheistic, and they considered Muhammad's fire-and-brimstone preaching against polytheism a threat, not least because polytheistic pilgrims were a huge factor in the local economy. Ultimately, Muhammad was informed that some of these polytheists had laid a plan to kill him and his followers. This triggered the Hejira (or Hijrah), the migration of Muslims from Mecca to the city of Yathrib, now known as Medina, which was more friendly to monotheists, as it had a large Jewish population. The first year of the Hijrah marks the start of the Islamic calendar, which is widely used in Muslim-majority countries to this day; Islamic years are abbreviated AH and the first year of the Hijrah, which began during 622 CE, is called 1 AH in the Islamic calendar.

Muhammad eventually had a falling out with the Jews, but by that time he and his followers were a strong army. They defeated Jewish and pagan opposition and later returned as conquerors of Mecca. Through inspirational leadership and great military prowess, Muhammad was able to unite most of Arabia under his rule during his lifetime.

The Koran (in Arabic: القرآن‎‎ al-Qurʾān, alternate English terms Qur'an, Quran and others) is the central religious text for Muslims. The word Koran translated literally is "recitation" and spoken recitation is still important; there are national and international Koran chanting contests every year which are widely televised in Muslim countries.

Other texts are also important; both the hadith (records) of Muhamad's life and sayings and the tafsir (interpretations) of both Koran and Hadith by various scholars. However, devout Muslims consider the Koran to be literally the Word of God, and the other texts do not have that level of authority.

See also: Islamic Golden Age

The first Islamic Empire, the Rashidun Caliphate, was established following the Prophet Muhammad's death. It was controlled by the first four caliphs who are known among Sunni Muslims as the "Rightly Guided".

The reign of the first caliph, the prophet's father-in-law Abu Bakr, lasted for only a little over two years, but it included successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time and region, the Byzantine Empire (successor to the Roman Empire) and the Persian Empire. Under the second Caliph, Umar (or Omar), the empire expanded greatly and there was an economic boom in the lives of the ordinary people due to the revolutionary economic policies developed by Umar. During the reign of Umar's successor Uthman, the people of the empire enjoyed a prosperous life. The last Rashidun caliph, Ali, was the son-in-law of Muhammad and was also the first young man who accepted Islam. Ali is also venerated by Shia Muslims as their first Imam.

By 750 CE, the Islamic Empire of the Umayyad Caliphate extended westward to Morocco, eastward to India and northward to southern France, Iberia, the Caucasus and Central Asia. It is the fifth largest empire ever to exist, and the largest empire in history by land area up until that point; it was home to roughly 30% of the world's total population during its heyday. Although modern Spain is a Roman Catholic country, the influence of the Umayyad Caliphate remains very much visible, and strong Islamic influences can be seen in the traditional architecture of southern Spain.

The Abbasid Caliphate, which was founded in 750 CE and ruled from Baghdad starting in 762 CE, was probably the most advanced civilization in the world for the next few hundred years. A tremendous number of Greek and Latin books were translated into Arabic between the 8th and 12th centuries, on topics including philosophy, history, science and mythology. At the same time, universities were opened, and there were great advances in astronomy, engineering and mathematics. Of particular note were:

• al-Khwārizmī (c. 780-c. 850), probably from Khiva, from whose terms we get the English words algebra and algorithm, and who introduced decimal arithmetic and "Arabic" numerals (originally from India) to the Islamic world
• Avicenna (Arabic: ibn Sīnā, c. 980-1037), from a village near Bukhara, a brilliant doctor and philosopher. One of his medical texts was used in Europe as late as 1650
• Omar Khayyam, from Nishapur, primarily a mathematician and astronomer but he also wrote on philosophy, mechanics, geography and mineralogy and is best known in the West for his poetry
• Maimonedes (c. 1135-1204), who was born in Córdoba, fled persecution of Jews there for the (then) more tolerant Muslim regions, and eventually became Court Physician to Saladin in Egypt.

Maimonedes, who was also a very influential rabbi, was one of many Jews and Christians who along with Muslims contributed to the greatness of the Islamic civilization.

The Golden Age lasted until 1258 when Baghdad was captured and destroyed by the Mongols.

There were quite a few other great Islamic dynasties after the Golden Age, centered in different parts of the world, but it is above all the caliphates of the Golden Age that are remembered both by historians of all faiths and no faith who celebrate their advancement of knowledge and by Muslims who see these caliphates as an example of how Muslims prospered and advanced as one ummah (community) dedicated to knowledge and progress. Muslims argue about which caliphs serve as good examples of correct Islamic rule and whether or what kind of caliphate should be established today.

The last empire that was widely regarded as a Muslim caliphate was the Ottoman Empire (1299-1923), the caliph being the sultan of the empire; since its fall several Muslim leaders have laid claim to the title of caliph, but neither the Empire nor the later claimants have been universally recognised as such by the worldwide Muslim community.

Some time after the prophet's death, the movement split; the main groups were the Sunni, loyal to the Caliphs, and the Shīʻatu ʻAlī (party of Ali) following the prophet's son-in-law Ali and his descendants. The latter group are generally just called Shi'a. There was a series of wars between the two factions, and there are still tensions between them which often lead to serious political conflicts both within and between countries.

One important battle was on the 10th of the Islamic month of Muharram at Karbala, now in Iraq, in 61 AH (680 CE); Ali's son Hussein and a band of followers were wiped out. This is still commemorated by both groups; for the Shi'a it is one of the most important religious events of the year. The day is called Ashura (meaning ten); for more detail, see the Iran article.

The term Imam has different meanings in the Sunni and Shia traditions. In Sunni Islam, it just means someone who is qualified to lead prayers in a mosque. In Shia Islam it refers exclusively to specific descendants of the Prophet, who Shi'a Muslims believe are the Prophet's rightful successors and thus the infallible leaders of the worldwide Muslim community.

The Shi'a began as primarily an Arab movement; places as far west as Morocco had Shi'a dynasties, and the Shi'a Fatamid Caliphate (909-1170 CE) ruled much of Arabia, the Levant and North Africa. However, Shi'a Islam became the state religion of the Persian Empire in the 16th century, and today, Iran (which is emphatically not an Arab nation) is its main center; nearby countries such as Iraq, Azerbaijan and Bahrain also have Shi'a majorities, and there are powerful Shi'a minorities in Pakistan, Yemen, Lebanon and Syria.

Sunnis are a majority in Southeast Asia, South Asia, Africa, and most of the Middle East. Around 90% of the world’s Muslims are Sunni and only around 10% Shi'a, but the whole situation is complex; most predominantly Sunni regions have Shi'a minorities and vice versa. Indonesia has the largest number of Sunni Muslims, while Iran has the largest number of Shi'a Muslims in the world. Pakistan has both the second-largest Sunni and the second-largest Shi'a Muslim population. However, Saudi Arabia is often considered to be the unofficial leader of the Sunni world, due to its custodianship of Islam's two holiest sites. Complicating the whole issue is the fact that some countries with a Shia majority have historically been ruled by Sunnis and vice versa. Saddam Hussein, for example, was a Sunni Muslim governing a country, Iraq, that is roughly 60% Shia.

A third group which began about the same time as the Sunni/Shi'a split were the Ibadi; today they are a majority in Oman and a small minority in several other countries.

The two most important festivals in Islam are the two Eids (also known as Hari Raya in Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore), which are the only festivals that are universally celebrated by all Muslims regardless of sect. Some Muslim sects may celebrate festivals that are unique to that particular sect.

• Eid al-Fitr - The most important festival in Islam, celebrated at the end of Ramadan. While Ramadan is a time of fasting, Eid al-Fitr is a time of feasting, and many Muslim families will invite their friends and neighbours to their houses in the spirit of celebration. In Southeast Asia, the King of Malaysia and Sultan of Brunei open their palaces to the public for this occasion, during which men can exchange greetings with the rulers, and the palace kitchen prepares a free buffet for the general public.
• Eid al-Adha - The festival during which the Hajj is performed. Only pilgrimages made during Eid al-Adha are considered to fulfill the Hajj, while pilgrimages made during other times are regarded as lesser pilgrimages or Umrah. In mosques throughout the world, lambs donated by the faithful are sacrificed to commemorate Abraham's obedience to God, and their meat is used to feed the poor.
• Prophet Muhammad's Birthday - Celebrated by some Muslim sects, but not by orthodox Sunnis, who consider its celebration to be idolatry.

There are five paramount rules or five most important duties in Islam, called the "Five Pillars of Islam", which are considered mandatory for all Muslims to follow during their life:

1. Faith (Shahada) — Shahada is a testimony, a declaration of faith in the religion and trusting that there is no god except God, and Muhammad is God's Messenger (in Arabic, La ilaha illallah, Muhammadur Rasullulah). Recitation of this statement of faith is the most common declaration of faith for all Muslims, and the Arabic calligraphy for it is frequently found on modern Islamic flags such as of Saudi Arabia or Iraq. Militant Islamist organizations such as Al Qaeda, Taliban and others also use this creed on their flags, but there is nothing fundamentally militant about this central statement of Islamic faith. Saying the Shahada three times in front of two adult Muslim witnesses and sincerely meaning it is considered sufficient for a conversion to Islam by many Muslims. It is also customary for Muslims to raise their right index finger when reciting the Shahada.
2. Prayer (Salah) — Salah is Islamic prayer. Muslims pray five times daily, facing the Kaaba in Mecca, and all mosques have a niche in the wall known as the mihrab to indicate the correct direction. The practice of Salah can be done anywhere, but on Fridays, it is mostly done at mosques, and quite a few Muslims go on other days as well, so mosques and smaller prayer halls have been created in every town in every Muslim-majority country. The prayers include some specific movements including bowing. While Muslim men are expected to pray at a mosque on Fridays for noon prayers, Muslim women are not obligated to do so; nevertheless, many do.
3. Charity (Zakat) — Zakat is charity that every Muslim, based on their wealth, is required by Islamic law to pay annually. Usually money is given to charitable organizations as well as to needy people.
4. Fasting (Sawm) — Sawm is ritual fasting that is obligatory for Muslims to do during the month of Ramadan. Muslims abstain from food, drink, smoking and sexual intercourse from dawn to dusk during this month, and mostly engage in prayers and contemplation.
5. Pilgrimage (Hajj) — Once in a lifetime, Muslims are required to go to Mecca on the Hajj pilgrimage if they can afford the traveling, financially and physically. It is not at all uncommon to have an entire village collect funds for one of their inhabitants to go to Mecca "in their stead". Those who have completed the Hajj are often addressed with the honorific title Haji (men) or Hajjah (women).

The Koran requires Muslims to dress modestly, and many Muslims interpret this to mean that women are required to cover their hair whenever they are in public. Many, but by no means all, observant Muslim women wear a headscarf known as a hijab (or in Malaysia, Brunei and Singapore, tudung) that covers their hair. Those who are stricter wear a full face veil, of which there are two types: the niqab covers the entire face except for the eyes, while the burqa covers the entire face including the eyes, with a mesh at eye level allowing the woman to see. Various forms of Islamic dress may be enforced by official law or very strong social custom and our country and region guides usually spell out the particulars.

• The Message — An interesting Koranic epic drama film directed by Syrian American film producer Moustapha Akkad in 1977, chronicles the life and times of Muhammad and serves as an introduction to early Islamic history. Released in Arabic and English and also dubbed in Urdu.

The Sufis are Muslim mystics; there are both Sunni and Shi'a Sufis. Among the well-known ones:

• Omar Khayyam (1048-1131 CE) was important as a mathematician and astronomer, but is best-known for his poetry, especially the Rubaiyat. He lived most of his life in Bukhara. There are multiple scholarly interpretations of his work, and not all experts consider him Sufi.
• There are hundreds of stories about Mullah Nasrudin (or Nasreddin), a Sufi saint who lived in the Konya region of Turkey in the 13th century
• Rumi was a Sufi saint of the 13th century CE, a scholar and judge now known mainly for his poetry. He grew up near Balkh but the family fled west due to the Mongol invasion and he spent much of his career in the Konya region. His son founded the Whirling Dervish order.
• Dervishes are one type of Sufi, Sunni mystics who practice asceticism and meditation. Some dervish groups also whirl, putting themselves into a sort of trance.

The Sufis have been quite influential in the West, at least among the sort of "new age" groups who also study yoga and Zen; Nasrudin tales and Rumi quotes are common in those circles.

Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam, followed by approximately 90% of the world's Muslims. They consider Abu Bakr, the first Caliph and Muhammad's father-in-law, to be his rightful successor. Sunnis believe that only members of the Quraysh, Muhammad's tribe, can inherit the title of Caliph. The name "Sunni" is derived from the word "Sunnah", which refers to the traditions and practices of Prophet Muhammad.

Sunni Islam is divided into four main schools of jurisprudence: Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i.

The Ba'ath movement arose in Syria in the 1940s; its goal is to unite all Arabs under one government which would be both Islamic and socialist. Neither orthodox Muslims nor orthodox Marxists accept all their ideas. It did manage to unite Egypt and Syria as the United Arab Republic for a few years around 1960, but otherwise has made little progress toward that goal. It has, however, been important in the politics of several countries; both Egypt's Nasser and Iraq's Saddam Hussein led Ba'athist parties, and the Assads lead one today in Syria.

Salafi is a fundamentalist Sunni movement; the name comes from salaf, meaning predecessors, referring to the idea that Muhammad and his early followers are the model for genuine Islam. Salafists call for a return to the fundamentals of Islam — the Koran and Hadith — and to Islamic Sharia Law.

Salafists are adamantly opposed to things that some other Muslims do — such as showing reverence for saints, creating shrines, and carrying amulets for luck or protection — they consider all of these as later innovations which pollute the original pure Islam. Some of the more extreme Salafists also destroy things they consider idolatrous or un-Islamic; for example Taliban wrecked the Buddha statues at Bamiyan and Da'esh destroyed many relics of Ancient Mesopotamia.

An interesting difference between Salafists and Christian fundamentalists is that Salafists claim to base their movement on the work of respected Muslim scholars, dating back at least to the 12th century CE, and often quote those scholars. It is difficult to imagine a typical Christian fundamentalist quoting, say, Thomas Aquinas or even John Calvin.

This is a conservative Salafi Islamic movement that arose in Egypt in the 1920s, partly as a resistance movement against the British.

Their fortunes since then have been extremely mixed. The group has affiliates worldwide but has been banned in many countries. In Egypt the organisation has been banned as subversive more than once, but at other times has had substantial representation in parliament and even briefly held the presidency. Several Gulf Arab nations supported them at one point, but today all except Qatar have labelled them terrorists.

Hamas, or Islamic Resistance Movement, is a Palestinian offshoot of the Muslim Brotherhood. Since defeating the more secular Fatah/PLO group in an election in 2006, they have ruled the Gaza Strip. Many nations consider them a terrorist organisation.

Wahhabi Islam began in the Arabian Peninsula in the 18th century, is named after the theologian Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792), and is a particularly strict and conservative branch of Salafism. Today it is the state religion of Saudi Arabia, is significant in several other Gulf states, and is also the main religious inspiration behind the Al-Qaeda terrorist group.

While "Wahhabi" is widely used by outside commentators, the adherents of the movement call themselves Salafi (or even simply "Muslim" since they consider other interpretations heretical), and often consider "Wahhabi" offensive.

Deobandi Islam is a Salafist movement that arose in India in the 19th century, partly as a form of resistance against British colonialism; it became quite influential on the Northwest Frontier (now the Pakistan/Afghanistan border region) partly because the Saudis (also Salafist) funded it.

Today this is the religious inspiration for the Taliban.

The most extreme Salafists (Salafi-Takfiri) believe their leaders can issue a takfir declaring others non-Muslim. In orthodox Islam, a takfir can only be issued by the Ulema, a group of scholars who are in effect a supreme court for Sharia Law. Da'esh, however, think that their Caliph can issue takfirs.

Da'esh believe that anyone who does not accept their interpretation of scripture and their Caliph is not a Muslim, and also that non-Muslims should all be either converted or killed — except Christians and Jews who accept Muslim rule, Sharia Law and an extra tax, or the women of non-Muslim groups such as the Yazidi who can be enslaved. This poses a large problem! Another problem is that they believe un-Islamic or idolatrous monuments should be destroyed; they have inflicted considerable damage on various sites in Ancient Mesopotamia.

Nearly all other Muslims, including all Shi'a and most Sunnis, reject the Da'esh Caliph and his takfirs. Even groups like the Taliban and Al-Qaeda who have much in common with Da'esh — Sunni, Salafist, militant, and labelled terrorists by Western governments — do not accept these ideas.

Da'esh much prefer to be called the Islamic State, Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) or Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). They have threatened to kill people for using "Da'esh". Many Western commentators prefer Da'esh because the other terms implicitly acknowledge that the movement is Islamic (though most Muslim scholars reject its interpretation) and a state (though most governments do not recognise it).

Shi'a Islam is the second largest branch of Islam and their beliefs are somewhat divergent from Sunni Islam. The main difference lies in the fact that Shi'a consider Muhammad's son-in-law Ali ibn Abi Talib, not Abu Bakr, to be his rightful successor, and venerate him as their first Imam. Shi'as believe that only a direct descendant of Muhammad though his daughter Fatima and son-in-law Ali can inherit the title of Imam. Iran is perhaps the best known example of a Shi'a majority country. Other Shi'a majority countries are Bahrain, Azerbaijan and Iraq.

The main branches of Shi'a Islam are Jafari (Twelver), Isma'ili (Sevener), and Zaidiyyah (Fiver).

Twelver Shi'a is the largest branch of Shi'a Islam, and the main one in Iran. According to Twelver theology, Muhammad appointed twelve spiritual and political successors, known as Imams. The Twelve Imams are believed to be exemplary individuals who rule society with justice. Twelvers are also known as Ja'fari, a term which originates from the name of the sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq.

All except the twelfth Imam, Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan al-Mahdī, met unnatural deaths. Twelvers believe that Muhammad al-Mahdi has been living in hiding for a long time and will continue to do so as long as Allah wills, then he will return as the promised Mahdi just before the Second Coming of Jesus.

Ismailis are a Shi'a branch sometimes called "seveners"; the Jafari list twelve Imams but the Ismaili recognise only the first seven of those and have a different lineage after that. Today there are about 15 million Nizari Ismailis (who consider the Aga Khan the 49th Imam) mainly in the Indian Subcontinent, plus a few smaller Ismaili groups, one in the Pamir mountains of Central Asia.

Perhaps the best-known Ismaili is Hasan-i Sabbah ("the old man of the mountain"), who was educated in Samarkand with Omar Khayyam as a classmate and later led a Persian revolt against the Seljuk Turks. There are many rather colorful stories about him, and the English words "hashish" and "assassin" are both derived from his name. His fortress at Alamut, near Qazvin is now a tourist attraction.

• Druze. The Druze, an ethnoreligious group from the Levant, are an offshoot of the Isamailis. They syncretize elements from other religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism and Christianity, believing in some concepts not generally found in Abrahamic faiths such as reincarnation. The governments of Israel, Lebanon, Syria and Jordan do not consider them to be Muslims, and instead classify them as a separate religious group. 

The Zaidiyyah are a relatively small group, named after Zayd ibn Ali, a grandson of Hussein and the son of the fourth Imam, Ali; Zaidis consider Zayd to be the fifth Imam. He led an unsuccessful revolt against the Umayyad Caliphate, and Zaidis believe it is the duty of any good Muslim to rebel if the government is corrupt.

Most Zaidis are in Yemen where they are about 25% of the population. The Houthi movement is a mainly Zaidi group which has waged a rebellion against the Yemeni government since 2004. The movement has been designated as a terrorist group in three countries.

Houthis have a highly complex relationship with Yemen's Sunni population and many Yemenis oppose Houthi rule.

The Alawites are an ethnoreligious group which originated from Shi'a Islam. The Alawites revere Imam Ali, hence the name "Alawite". In addition to celebrating Islamic traditions, Alawites celebrate Christian holy days such as Christmas, Easter, and Epiphany and it is common for Alawites to be given Christian names.

Syria is the main center of Alawites, who are 15-20% of the population there, and there is also a significant community among ethnic Arabs in the Turkish province of Hatay. They wield considerable influence and power in the country, largely because Syria's political scene is dominated by the al-Assad family, who themselves are Alawites.

Ibadi Islam is the third main branch of Islam, comprising about 1% of the global Muslim population. About three quarters of Ibadi Muslims are concentrated in Oman, the only country with an Ibadi majority, where Ibadi Islam is the state religion. Unlike Sunni and Shi'a Muslims, Ibadis believe that bloodline should not matter at all when selecting their leader, known as an Imam, and instead believe that it should be purely meritocratic and with the consensus of community leaders. Ibadis also believe that their Imam may be deposed at the discretion of community leaders should he not live up to his role.

There are a number of groups who consider themselves Muslim but have beliefs and practices far from the mainstream.

Alevism-Bektashism is based on the teachings of Hacı Bektaş Veli, a 13th century Turkish Sufi saint. The movement has a significant following in Turkey (up to 20% of the population), and among Bulgarian-Turks and Albanian Muslims. Some of the Turkish adherents view the tradition as essentially a modern form of Turkic shamanism independent of Islam or even accept it as a cultural identity devoid of any religious associations.

The Alevi houses of worship are called cem evi ("gathering place"), as opposed to cami ("mosque"), where they partake in the semah ritual, inscribed in the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage.

The Ahmadiyya movement is an Islamic revival movement that has its roots in 19th century India. It was founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (1835–1908), who claimed to have been divinely appointed as both the Promised Mahdi and Messiah expected by Muslims to appear towards the end times and bring about, by peaceful means, the final triumph of Islam.

The Ahmadis are active translators of the Quran and are active proselytisers for Islam. Despite this, many mainstream Muslims consider them to be "non-Muslims" and they have faced persecution all over the world. The constitution of Pakistan considers Ahmadis non-Muslims and deprives them of religious rights. The Saudi government also considers them non-Muslims, so it does not allow them to visit Mecca for the Hajj pilgrimage.

Pakistan has the largest Ahmadi population in the world.

Quranism is a branch of Islam that promotes the belief that Islamic guidance should be based only on the Quran. Quranists believe that hadith literature is fabricated and full of falsehoods. Like Ahmadis, Quranists have faced active persecution all over the world because their views contradict those of mainstream Muslims.

The Nation of Islam (NOI) was founded in the United States as a political and religious movement fighting for the empowerment of black people. Many of their beliefs deviate significantly from mainstream Islam, such that many Muslims would consider some of these to be strange, or even heretical. Due to its prominence in African-American history and the Civil Rights Movement, the term "Black Muslim" has become somewhat synonymous with the NOI within the U.S., even though many African-American Muslims follow mainstream Sunni Islam rather than the NOI.

Among the most prominent followers of this brand of Islam were the famous boxer Muhammad Ali and the Civil Rights leader Malcolm X. Both later left the movement and became mainstream Sunni Muslims.

The movement has always been exceedingly controversial. The Southern Poverty Law Center labels it racist and anti-Semitic.

Islamic Law is called Sharia (also spelled Shariah, Shari'ah or Syariah). Contrary to popular belief, there is no single codified "Book of Sharia Law", and even today, Islamic scholars continue to debate on what an appropriate application of Sharia is. In Western countries, it is common for Sharia to be misrepresented as only the most extreme possible punishments, such as stoning for adultery and amputation for theft. In fact, Sharia is applied to Muslims in many countries where such severe punishments are not practiced. Some might surprise you: For example, in Israel and Singapore, marriage, divorce and family law for Muslims are governed by Sharia.

The severest interpretations of Sharia are also called Hudud or Hudood, deriving from the Arabic word hadd, meaning "limit", because they take Sharia to its severest possible limits. Pakistan has Hudood Laws, but Malaysia, which like many other Muslim countries applies Sharia in addition to civil law to Muslims, does not, and its Supreme Court has ruled against attempts by the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party to pass such law in the state of Kelantan on constitutional grounds. In pre-colonial Islamic societies the practical application of Sharia often ended up being milder than contemporary European law due to the relatively high standards of evidence then required. However, radical Islamists do not necessarily feel bound by those more lenient practices.

Sharia in most cases does not apply to non-Muslims, anyway, though with some important exceptions such as possible penalties for blasphemy and perhaps for illicit sex or "proximity" (khulwa/khalwat, which means to be alone in a potentially compromising position with a person of the opposite sex to whom you are not married or an immediate family member) with a Muslim.

However, there are a few countries that do not recognize any religion but Islam, most notably Saudi Arabia, and those countries apply Sharia to all who enter.

Overall, the boundary between law, tradition and practice can be blurry, and there is a continuum between the mildest and severest forms of Sharia, so the best advice for any visitor to a Muslim country is to find out what laws and conventions are likely to apply to them and act respectfully, because in a country where blasphemy could be punished by death, you are a lot less likely to incur such a punishment if you refrain from criticizing Islam or its prophets while you are visiting.

Islamic finance has gained growing interest since the 1960s. In accordance with Sharia law, Muslims cannot invest in anything, acquire anything, or engage in any transaction that is considered haram, i.e., forbidden.

Islamic law stipulates that receiving or paying interest (known as riba) is considered a major sin because it promotes economic inequality. For this reason, Islamic banks and Muslims are forbidden from issuing loans on interest.

Muslims are generally advised to invest their money in accordance with the principles of Islamic law. They are advised against making investments in companies that manufacture and distribute pork products, alcoholic beverages and pornography. Some Sharia law scholars advise Muslims against making investments in tobacco companies.

Today, Dubai and Kuala Lumpur are generally considered to be the main hubs of Islamic banking.

• Jeddah: One of the most historic cities of Saudi Arabia, with a well-preserved old town of iconic coral houses. The city is also home to many historic mosques such as Al-Mimar Mosque and Al-Shafi'i Mosque.
• Mecca: The holiest city in the religion, birthplace of Muhammad and endpoint of the Hajj pilgrimage. Entry for non-Muslims is prohibited under Saudi law.
• Medina: Muhammad found refuge and most of his first followers here. Considered the second holiest city in Islam today and long barred to non-Muslims, the rules were relaxed in 2021, so non-Muslims may now visit as tourists. Entry into the Prophet's Mosque, where Muhammad is buried, is still forbidden for non-Muslims, though you may take photographs from outside the perimeter fence.

• Bethlehem: Home to Rachel's Tomb, said to be the burial site of Jacob's second wife Rachel, and a holy site for Jews, Christians and Muslims.
• Hebron: Home to the Cave of the Patriarchs, which is believed to be home to the tombs of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob and their wives, Sarah, Rebecca and Leah respectively, making it a holy site for Jews and Muslims.
• Jerusalem: While not a majority-Muslim city, it is considered the third holiest city in Islam and its Arabic name "al Quds" is used with longing and veneration.

• Karbala: A battle nearby killed Hussein bin Ali in 61 AH. This is still commemorated, especially by Shi'a. There are shrines for Hussein and his brother Abbas and many other historic buildings.
• Najaf: One of the holiest cities for Shi'a, a major pilgrimage destination, and the political center of Iraq's Shi'a. It has the tomb of Ali and many other religious buildings.
• Samarra: The capital of the Abbassid Caliphate 836-890 CE, this is best-preserved Islamic capital and a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is also home to Al-Askari Shrine, which contains the tombs of the 10th and 11th Imams of Twelver Shi'a Islam, making it an important Twelver Shi'a pilgrimage site.

• Isfahan: Home to some of the most striking mosques in the world, as well as impressive tombs and historic palaces.
• Mashhad: This holy city is home to the splendid Imam Reza Shrine, dedicated to the eighth Shi'ite Imam, who was martyred in the 9th century CE.
• Qom: A great center of Shi'a learning, roughly halfway between Tehran and Isfahan.
• Shiraz: Impressive tombs and the Nasir al-Mulk Mosque, which has colorful stained glass and beautifully tiled ceilings.

• Aleppo: The Great Mosque of Aleppo is believed by Christians and Muslims to be the burial site of Zechariah, the father of John the Baptist, making it a major pilgrimage site.
• Damascus: Home of the Great Umayyad Mosque, where Christians and Muslims believe the head of John the Baptist is buried, making it a major pilgrimage site. Muslims also believe that this is where Jesus will return to Earth during the end times.

• Hacıbektaş is the holiest site in the Alevism-Bektashism tradition, as the town is the location of the shrine of Hacı Bektaş Veli.
• Harran: While nowadays better known for its rural feel and traditional "beehive" houses, this village was one of the earliest centers of Islamic learning, where classical knowledge of astronomy, philosophy, natural sciences and medicine was translated from Greek into Arabic (usually through Syriac with the help of local Assyrians). The ruins of an ancient Islamic university exist. Nearby Urfa is also rich in Islamic architecture and myths associated with Abraham.
• Istanbul: Formerly Constantinople, it was the spiritual and political center of one of the biggest Muslim empires, the Ottoman Empire, and features one of the holiest pilgrimage sites of Islam, the tomb of Mohammed's standard bearer Abu Ayyub al-Ansari, who died and was buried here during the first siege of Constantinople in the 8th century. The Eyüp mosque stands on the shore of the Golden Horn, outside the Old City walls. Inside them, there are several beautiful Imperial mosques, some of Byzantine origins.
• Konya: home of the great Sufi teachers Rumi and Nasrudin (whose tomb is in the nearby town of Akşehir), with much fine Islamic architecture.

• Cairo: Egypt's capital, founded during the Islamic era, is a major cultural hub of the Arab World, home to the famous and ancient Al Azhar University and many dozens of historic mosques. Egyptian Arabic is intelligible to the vast majority of Arabs, and Egyptian TV, musical scene and movies have influence far beyond Egypt itself.
• Kairouan: A major pilgrimage destination in Tunisia, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

• The cities of Timbuktu, Gao and Djenné were once centres of Islamic scholarship and learning, and are today still home to mosques built in the distinctive Sahelian architectural style.

• Sokoto was the seat of the Sokoto Caliphate, and remains a centre of Islamic scholarship.

See also: Sacred sites of the Indian subcontinent

• Agra: The site of the most famous Mughal architecture and one of the most famous Islamic buildings in the world: the Taj Mahal. The Agra area has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites: the Taj and Agra Fort in the city, and outside town the well-preserved royal city of Fatehpur Sikri.
• Delhi: India's capital was previously the capital of several Islamic dynasties, most notably the Mughal Empire. It is home to numerous splendid monuments and mosques from the Mughal and earlier periods, including the Red Fort, the tomb of Emperor Humayan and the Jama Masjid.
• Hyderabad is the most important of several cities in South India that once had Muslim rulers and still have fine examples of Islamic architecture.

• Lahore: An important city that was for some time capital of the Mughal Empire. It has quite a few impressive attractions dating from that time, including the Badshahi Mosque, Lahore Fort, and the splendid three-tiered Shalimar Gardens. Lahore has a vibrant Punjabi Muslim cultural and religious life, including a Sufi gathering on Thursdays at the shrine of Shah Jamal.

• Bukhara and Samarkand in Uzbekistan were both major sites of Islamic science and learning, and have many ancient buildings with delicate tilework that are highlights of any trip along the Silk Road. Both are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
• Turkestan, Kazakhstan, is the site of the striking shrine of Ahmed Yassavi, a 12th-century poet and pioneer mystic who is a highly respected figure among Turkic Muslims. He was the founder of the Sufi order of Yasavviya, influenced by the pre-Islamic Turkic shamanism.

• Córdoba, the former capital of Al-Andalus, contains several important relics of that time, especially La Mezquita de Córdoba, a beautiful, large mosque built on the site of a Visigothic church and subsequently converted into a church after the reconquista of Spain.
• Sevilla, also in Andalusia, is home to the Sevilla Cathedral, which was built on the site of a mosque that was demolished on the orders of the Catholic monarchs. La Giralda, the bell tower of the cathedral, was converted from the former minaret of the mosque. The Real Alcázar, today one of the official residences of the Spanish royal family, was built under Muslim rule, and sports numerous influences from Islamic architecture. Some other palaces built following the Reconquista have also incorporated Moorish influences.
• Granada, also in Andalusia, is the site of the splendid Alhambra fortress/palace complex and other relics of its Moorish past, and it also has a mosque in Moorish style that was built in 2003 to serve a new Muslim community, hundreds of years after the last member of the previous Muslim community was expelled.
• Larnaca, or rather the bank of the local salt lake west of the town in Cyprus, is the site of Hala Sultan Tekke, an Ottoman-built shrine at the cemetery of Umm Haram, Muhammad's wet nurse, who died here during a siege in the 7th century. Some denominations consider this to be one of the holiest Islamic sites.
• Tetovo, Macedonia, is the site of the "Painted Mosque" (Šarena Džamija), a rather small Ottoman-era mosque that is atypically decorated with extremely bright and colourful paintings.
• Grozny, the capital of Chechnya in Russia is home to the Heart of Chechnya, the largest mosque in Europe.

• Bandar Seri Begawan: Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque, built in honour of Omar Ali Saifuddien III, the 28th Sultan of Brunei, is widely regarded as one of the most spectacular mosques in Southeast Asia, with its dome covered in pure gold. Another notable mosque is the Jame' Asr Hassanil Bolkiah Mosque, built in honour of the current sultan, Hassanal Bolkiah.

• Padang: Home to the Grand Mosque of West Sumatra, a large, modern mosque built in a distinctive Minangkabau architectural style. Another mosque is the historically significant Great Mosque of Ganting. The local Minangkabau people are known for being among the few Muslim peoples with a matriarchal society.

• Johor Bahru: Sultan Abu Bakar State Mosque was built under the direction of Abu Bakar, the 21st Sultan of Johor, in the early 20th century. It is known for being built in a largely English Victorian architectural style, albeit with the incorporation of some Moorish and Malay architectural elements as well.
• Malacca: Home to several historic colonial-era mosques built in a distinctive Malay architectural style, such as the Kampung Kling Mosque, Kampung Hulu Mosque and the Tranquerah Mosque. There is also the Melaka Straits Mosque, a modern 21st century structure that was built on stilts over the sea.
• Penang: Kapitan Keling Mosque in George Town was built by Indian Muslim traders during the colonial era, and is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Much of Southern Thailand was once part of various Malay sultanates, and Malay Muslims continue to form the majority in the provinces of Yala, Narathiwat, Pattani, and a significant minority in Songkhla province, while Satun province has a Muslim majority that identifies as ethnically Thai but has some Malay ancestry.

• Pattani: Formerly the capital of the Sultanate of Pattani, and today still the heart of Malay Muslim culture in Thailand. The Pattani Central Mosque is a major landmark, and is regarded as one of the largest and most beautiful mosques in Thailand.

• The Kampong Glam area is home to two historically significant Malay mosques, namely Sultan Mosque and Hajjah Fatimah Mosque. In Little India, the Abdul Gaffoor Mosque was built to serve the local Indian Muslim community, and is known for its rich architectural features. Another Indian Muslim mosque is the Jamae Mosque in Chinatown, known for the distinctive South Indian architectural style of its front gate.

See also: Minority cultures of China

Islam has a long history in China, with the oldest mosques going back to the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE). The Mongol Empire, which ruled China as the Yuan Dynasty 1279-1368, encouraged foreign scholars and clerics to visit; they admitted many missionaries, mainly Muslim and Buddhist.

The largest Muslim group is the Chinese-speaking Hui people. Uniquely among the world's Muslim peoples, the Hui maintain a centuries-old tradition of ordaining female imams and running women-only mosques. Hui mosques also traditionally lack the large Middle Eastern-style domes that are characteristic of mosques elsewhere, and are instead built to resemble Chinese temples, albeit with several Islamic elements incorporated into the design.

Islam is also the main religion practised by several of China's ethnic minorities, including the Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Tatars. Unlike the Hui mosques, the mosques of these groups tend to resemble those in the Middle East and Central Asia due to their shared cultural ties.

China also has a long tradition of carpet weaving, especially but not exclusively among its Muslim minorities.

Perhaps the most famous Chinese Muslim is the Ming Dynasty admiral Zheng He, who led expeditions for exploration and trade as far as East Africa in the early 1400s CE.

Some of the major Islamic sights in China are:

• Beijing: Beijing's oldest mosque is the Niujie Mosque, which was built during the Ming Dynasty in mostly in a traditional Chinese architectural style. Another notable Ming Dynasty mosque is the Dongsi Mosque, which is also built in a traditional Chinese architectural style.
• Hohhot: The Great Mosque of Hohhot was built by the ethnic Hui community during the Qing Dynasty with a fusion of Chinese and Arab architectural styles.
• Kashgar: A majority ethnic Uyghur city, with the Id Kah Mosque being the heart of the community, and known for its distinctive yellow walls and Central Asian architecture. The Afaq Khoja Mausoleum 5 km northeast of the city is the holiest Muslim site in China.
• Khotan: A historic Uyghur-majority city in southern Xinjiang, it is home to several Muslim religious sites, including the Khotan Mosque. Just outside the city is the Tomb of Imam Asim, the first Muslim missionary to reach what is the modern territory of China; a shrine built around the tomb is a popular pilgrimage site for local Muslims.
• Lanzhou: Known for its large ethnic Hui community, with lanzhou lamian being one of the community's signature dishes that is popular throughout China. The Nanguan Mosque is a beautiful mosque built in a traditional Chinese architectural style, but embellished with some Moorish elements.
• Quanzhou was a major port on the Maritime Silk Road and was one of the first Chinese cities reached by Islamic missionaries. Legend has it that the first ones were disciples sent by Muhammad himself; their tombs are at Lingshan Mountain, then outside the town but now in it. The Qingjing Mosque downtown was built in 1009 CE.
• Turpan: The desert oasis city of Turpan is a majority ethnic Uyghur city, and known for the Emin Mosque, whose minaret is famous for its unique design.
• Xi'an: The Great Mosque of Xi'an was built during the Ming Dynasty in a traditional Chinese architectural style, and is the largest mosque in China. It is still used as an active place of worship by the local Hui community. The city also boasts a vibrant Muslim Quarter in the area around the Great Mosque, which is a major center of Hui Muslim culture, and an excellent place to sample some halal Chinese food.
• Xining: The capital of Qinghai province has a significant ethnic Hui community, with its Dongguan Mosque being one of the largest in China, and known for its distinctive green and white domes.

A common characteristic of much Islamic art is that they avoid depicting humans, and in some traditions also animals, in artwork. The injunction "Thou shalt not make any graven image" is found in the Koran, as it is in the Bible, and Muslims often give it a strict interpretation.

As a result, art that uses a combination of geometric designs, stylized plant motifs and Arabic calligraphy is typical of Islamic art. In particular, most Muslims consider any visual depictions of the Prophet Muhammad and all other prophets of Islam to be forbidden. It's been suggested that iconoclasm is generally taken more seriously by Sunni Muslims than by Shia Muslims at present, but this has historically varied according to time and place.

That said, there are many beautiful examples of historical Persian and Mughal paintings that include images of people and animals in gardens and other landscapes. Garden carpets — from Kerman, or Qashqai people around Shiraz, or Mughal regions — are also fairly common.

A common technique in Islamic art is to use highly decorative forms of Arabic lettering in calligraphy of Koran inscriptions and other holy names and phrases, especially the names of Allah and the Prophet Muhammad, either by themselves or in combination with geometric designs.

There are a number of museums of Islamic Art around the world:

• Doha has a large one designed by I. M. Pei
• Istanbul has one
• There's one in Downtown Cairo
• Kuala Lumpur has one
• The Aga Khan Museum is in Toronto
• One is found in Jerusalem
• Marawi in the Philippines (too dangerous to visit as of January 2022) has one

Of course any museum in an Islamic region can also be expected to have some Islamic art, and other museums such as the British Museum in London and the Metropolitan Museum in New York also have sections for Islamic art. There are also museums specifically dedicated to Arab art, such as Musée de l'Institut du Monde Arabe in Paris. Far from all Islamic art is Arab and not all Arab art is Islamic, but there is substantial overlap.

See also: Architecture#Religious_buildings

Distinct styles of Islamic architecture, which range in style between different regions and periods, not only encompass mosques today but have also influenced many other types of structures, including the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Mughal Architecture is found mainly in India and Pakistan; the most famous example is the Taj Mahal.