Latin America

There were several great civilizations in what's now Latin America prior to the arrival of the Conquistadores. Mexico is well-known for the Aztecs and the earlier Olmec civilization; Central America from the Yucatan Peninsula to Honduras is full of Mayan ruins and is still populated by Mayans to a significant extent; the Incas had a large empire in the Andes; and evidence of a great civilization in the Brazilian Pampas that may be about 2,000 years old has been discovered since 2021 and is being further investigated. All of the civilizations mentioned above except for the yet-to-be-named Brazilian one and indeed many others produced large quantities of pottery, sculptures and other artworks that can be seen in numerous museums, and some impressive ruins have been left behind, including Machu Picchu, Teotihuacan, and Chichen Itza. The Gold Museum in Bogota, Colombia is a good place to look at artworks made of gold from the pre-Columbian era.

The native peoples of the Americas have also had a large impact on other areas of life, including cultivation and cooking. Potatoes in many varieties are native to the Andes and have been cultivated there for at least 7,000 years; corn is native to Mexico, where it has been developed and grown for about 10,000 years; tomatoes are from Mexico and neighboring areas and were grown and used in cooking by the Aztecs and previous civilizations starting before 500 BC; chilis originated in Bolivia and were first grown in Mexico about 6,000 years ago; the cacao bean from which chocolate is made is native to the Amazon and was grown in South America 5,300 years ago before being introduced to Mexico by the Olmecs; and the Caribbean Tainos used a cooking technique that became the basis of today's styles of barbecue (Spanish: barbacoa) in the Americas. Beans were also a part of pre-Columbian cuisines in the Americas. All or most of these ingredients remain central to the cuisines of most of Latin America today.

This is intended as a short overview of general historic themes shared by most of Latin America and not as detailed coverage of individual countries' particulars. For that see the country guides or Wikipedia

Much of Latin America was conquered by Spanish or Portuguese adventurers, soldiers and missionaries in the decades following 1492, but the Mapuche in what is now Chile held out until after independence, and colonial governance took centuries to penetrate deeper into all facets of life. Native languages and in some cases social structures endured and even thrived. Some more outlying areas that were hard to reach and seemed of little value were later claimed and settled by European powers outside the Iberian peninsula, which caused their history to diverge. Here the mainland areas of "the Guyanas", French Guiana, Guyana (former British colony), Suriname (former Dutch colony) as well as Central American Belize (British colony until 1980) and most of the Caribbean have markedly different histories from the rest of the region, which engenders debate about whether to consider them part of "Latin America".

During the 19th century, independence movements mostly led by the criollo (people of European descent born in the colonies) elite won independence for most former Spanish colonies. Slavery was either abolished upon independence or put on a course of extinction, unlike in the United States or Brazil which clung to it until 1865 and 1888 respectively, and the black and native populations were at least in theory granted full citizenship rights upon independence. Spain maintained control of a few particularly lucrative island colonies such as Cuba, Santo Domingo (now the Dominican Republic) and Puerto Rico before losing them to the U.S. in the Spanish-American War of 1898. The U.S. granted nominal independence to Cuba in 1902 while retaining strong de facto control until 1959, but Puerto Rico remains a U.S. territory, albeit with Spanish instead of English being the dominant language. While the new constitutions were ostensibly color-blind, the criollo elite mostly took power for itself, only slowly integrating a select few mestizo (of mixed European and Amerindian descent) families into the governing elite. Similarly, native culture was often ignored or even persecuted, and the introduction of stronger bureaucracy, public schools and more direct administration of far-flung areas created a continuing pressure on indigenous languages which only a few languages survived in a truly healthy state.

Social inequality introduced in the colonial era but sometimes predating it, is one of many causes of a tumultuous and fractious political history throughout much of the 19th and into the 20th century. Often a caudillo, a charismatic military leader, would rise from outside the governing elite and challenge it with populist policies and the support of the vast economic underclasses only to turn into a dictator who clung to power. With the passage of the Monroe Doctrine that prohibits other countries in the Americas from forming military alliances with other great powers, the U.S. began to assert its influence over the region and the U.S. continues to be an important trading partner, hated, loved and feared to varying extents across the political spectrum. During the 1850s, private US citizens, so-called "Filibusters" tried to conquer Latin American nations and convert them into puppets of mostly Southern slaver interests and by the end of the 19th century, business interests, especially in bananas, had many countries firmly in their grip, giving rise to the term "banana republic". The U.S. has often intervened to overthrow socialist governments and prop up right-wing authoritarian regimes that collaborated with U.S. business interests, causing resentment on the losing side of those political battles. During the Cold War this tendency dating at least to the Woodrow Wilson era was exacerbated by the accusation that any leftist movement was a puppet of the Soviet Union and the natural inclination of such movements to accept Soviet (or later Cuban) aid. Perhaps the most notorious example was the 1973 Chile coup d'état, in which the socialist president Salvador Allende was toppled in a U.S.-backed military coup led by the far-right general Augusto Pinochet and forced to commit suicide, with Pinochet proceeding to rule Chile with an iron fist until the 1990s. In the 21st century, China is increasingly challenging American dominance in the region, having overtaken the United States to become the largest source of foreign investment in Latin America.

Coca is native to the Andes and as such cocaine production naturally happens in Latin America and all aspects of the production, trade and consumption of this and other substances illegal under U.S. law have had a large and sometimes controversial influence. While there have been plans to entirely eradicate the coca plant on US suggestion and a "law and order" approach with "super mano dura" (super hard hand) still enjoys some popularity, countries such as Uruguay have since experimented with the legalization of cannabis and others propose even further ratcheting down of the "war on drugs". Regardless, criminal enterprises fueled partially or entirely by the drug trade have had a large influence on many parts of Latin America.

After 1990, several Latin American countries elected left-leaning presidents in a trend sometimes called "pink tide" which recalibrated the political compass of many areas. While most of those leftists ruled constitutionally and were willing to let at least some foreign investment untouched, the rules of Hugo Chavez in Venezuela (1999 to his death in 2013), Daniel Ortega in Nicaragua (1979 to 1990, and 2007 to present), Rafael Correa (2007 to 2017) in Ecuador, Evo Morales in Bolivia (2006 to 2019, when he was toppled in a U.S.-backed military coup) and Chavez's successor Maduro have garnered international controversy and accusations of US meddling on one hand and dictatorial tendencies on the other. The Odebrecht corruption scandal has implicated high ranking political figures in virtually all Latin American countries and left no side of the political spectrum untouched. In some cases, Western governments have outright refused to recognise the legitimacy of socialist governments in Latin America, instead alleging electoral fraud, while regarding right-wing opposition figures as their officially-recognised heads of government.

Although a very culturally diverse region, unsurprisingly, as former Spanish and Portuguese colonies, influences from the former colonial masters is evident in the local cultures. Perhaps the most noticeable influence is the Roman Catholic Church, and every Latin American country has a Roman Catholic majority. Indigenous cultures have in general survived much better in Latin America than in the United States and Canada, and most Latin Americans have at least partial indigenous ancestry, with indigenous cultural elements forming an integral part of the national identities of most Latin American countries. Latin American culture has also been shaped by the African cultures of the slaves who were brought over during the Atlantic slave trade, as will as by that of other immigrant communities such as the Arabs in Mexico, the Germans in Brazil, the Welsh and Italians in Argentina, the Japanese in Brazil and Peru, and the Chinese in Cuba and Peru.

Latin Americans take their sports very seriously. Two sports that stand out from the rest are football (soccer) and baseball. Baseball is the dominant sport in the Dominican Republic, Cuba, Puerto Rico, Nicaragua, Panama and Venezuela, while football is the dominant sport everywhere else. Passions for football in particular run very high, and violent incidents between fans of opposing teams are a regular occurrence, sometimes even resulting in fatalities. The football rivalry between Brazil and Argentina is one of the most intense and iconic in the world.

Besides football and baseball, other sports which command strong local followings include volleyball in Brazil, as well as basketball, field hockey and rugby union in Argentina.